The History of the Chair

Posted on June 26, 2010 by squadron

From all the furniture forms, the chair could be the paramount one. While most other items (save for the bed) are devised to support objects, the chair supports a human form. The term chair is looked upon here in the most open sense, from stool to throne to further items for example the bench or sofa, which should be seen as extended or connected chairs, and whose character (i.e., whether they are intended for sitting or reclining) is not evidently labeled.

The social history of the chair is as intriguing as its history as a creative craft. The chair is not only a physical support or an aesthetic item; it was historically an indicator of social ranking. At the Medieval royal courts there were social differences between being seated on a chair with arms, or a chair with a back but without arms, and having to cope with a stool. From the last century, the director’s and manager’s chair has become iconic of superior status, and even in democratic government debate the speaker sits on a high-set level.

As a furniture form, the chair encompasses a number of variations. There are chairs structured to fit man’s age and physical capabilities (the high chair, the wheelchair) and for his standing in society (the executive chair, the throne). From historical times there were chairs for births (birth chairs); since the 20th century, there have been chairs to die in (the electric chair). We design chairs with one, two, three, or four legs, chairs with or without arms, and chairs with or without backs. We can make chairs that can be folded up, chairs on wheels, and chairs on runners.

Our contemporary lifestyle has designated unique chairs for automobiles and aircraft. All these chair kinds has evolved to fit to evolving human uses. For its particular connection with man, the chair exists to its full importance only when in use. Although it is irrelevant to one’s appreciation of a cupboard or a chest of drawers whether there might be things inside or not, a chair is best seen and evaluated with a person utilising it, for chair and sitter complement one another. Thus the individual elements of a chair have been given labels corresponding to the parts of our human body: arms, legs, feet, back, and seat.

Because the elemental purpose of the chair is to support a human body, its worth is valued primarily for how completely it fulfills this practical use. In the structure of a chair, the builder is bound by the static regulations and principal measurements. Within these limitations, however, the chair designer has extensive freedom.

The history of the chair covers dates of several thousand years. There is evidence of peoples that created significant chair shapes, seen of the premier craft in the industries of skill and creativity. In those cultures, individual note needs to be made of ancient Egypt and Greece; China; Spain and The Netherlands in the 17th century; England in the 18th century; and France in the 18th century during the ascendancy of Louis XV and Louis XVI.

Egypt
Two ancient Egyptian chair forms, both the items of careful make, were a finding from discoveries made in tombs. One of these is a four-legged chair with a back, the other a folding stool. The typical Egyptian chair would have had four legs formed like those of some animal, a curved seat, and a sloping back supported over vertical stretchers. In this way a stable triangular form was obtained. There seems to be no noteworthy difference from the design of Egyptian thrones and chairs for ordinary peasantry. The main change existed in the type of ornamentation, in the selection of more costly inlays. The Egyptian folding stool in all likelihood was made for an easily carried seat for army. As a camp stool the chair continued during much later periods. But the stool also was created for the use of a ceremonial seat, its mechanical role as a folding stool ignored or forgotten. This can from today’s evidence be found, from as early as 1366–57 BC in two stools, created in ebony with ivory inlay decoration and gold mounts, from the tomb of Tutankhamen. They were made in the construction of folding stools but can’t be folded as the seats are worked from wood. The plain build of the folding stool, composed of two frames that turn on metal bolts and hold a seat of leather or fabric secured between them, came again somewhat later as the Bronze Age folding chairs of Scandinavia and northern Germany. The best known of this kind is the folding stool, crafted from ashwood, now found at Guldhøj (National Museum in Copenhagen).

Greece and Rome
The archetypal Greek chair, the klismos, is seen not from any ancient specimen still in form but in a wealth of pictorial items. The best recognised is the klismos drawn on the Hegeso Stele at the Dipylon burial place by Athens (c. 410 BC). This klismos is a chair that had a backward-sloping, curved backboard and four curving legs, only two of them were seen. These odd legs were possibly executed with bent wood and were likely to have been put under great pressure with the weight of the sitter. The joints joining the legs to the frame of the seat were therefore very solid and were plainly pointed out.

The Romans embued the Greek chair; existing statues of seated Romans are evidence of a heavier and which appear to be a slightly less intricately built klismos. Both kinds, the light or the heavy, were popularised during the Classicist epoch. The klismos style is used in French Empire styles, in English Regency, and in some particular types of profound individuality in Denmark and Sweden circa 1800.

China
The ancestry of the chair in China cannot be tracked as long as the history of chairs in Egypt and Greece. From the time of the Tang dynasty (AD 618–907) an unscathed folio of sketches and works of art was protected, with images of the interiors and exteriors of Chinese houses and the designs of furniture. Another preservation of the 16th century are a number of chairs crafted of wood or lacquered wood, that display an amazing resemblance to designs of previous chairs.

Just as in Egypt, there were two iconic chair forms in China: a chair of four legs and a folding stool. This four-legged chair has been found both with or without arms however always having the square seat and straight stiles (straight side supports) to hold up the back. In one type, though, the stiles had been marginally curved by the arms for the purpose of sit correctly with the shape of the S-shaped back splat (the central upright of its back). All three limbs are mortised in the yoke-like top rail. Though the style of the back splat then had an influence on English chairs from the Queen Anne period, wooden members that only just to a particular capability reinforce corner joints (and were loose in the bargain) indicate a design solely to Chinese chairs. The four legs are set through the seat frame, which stops around the rounded staves. All the members are round in section or possesses rounded edges—an acknowledgement maybe to the bamboo tradition. The seat is not comfortable and had on occasion a plaited seat. These chairs required the sitter to stay stiff and upright; if too much weight is exerted on the back, the chair has a tendency to topple. In patriarchal Chinese households of this era armchairs most likely were kept only for senior persons in the family, for they were held in great respect.

The Chinese folding stool is believed to have come to China from the West. It is akin that much from the Egyptian and Scandinavian folding stools, but it possesses a dissimilarity in that the top rail is intricately joined to the two legs of the stool by a curved member, which is generally designed with metal mounts. From a Western understanding the resultant effect of these two furniture designs is stylized. The constructive and decoration issues are combined in a manner that is all at once naïve and refined. The patchwork appearance is a result of the way that the individual members do not appear to have been held together by use of either glue or screws, but had been mortised into one another and held in its place in the manner of a Chinese puzzle.

Spain: 17th century
The Golden Age of Spain during the 17th century also had its mark on the chair. Works of art display a style of chair with a relatively crude wooden frame; a back and seat, nailed on, having only two layers of leather, with horsehair stuffing in between, stitched to produce a pattern of little pads. The front board and a related board from the back could be folded after unscrewing some small iron hooks. In this way the chair was an easily portable piece of furniture in traveling which, at the same time, possessed the status of a four-legged, high-backed armchair.

The Netherlands: 17th century
A low, square, upholstered design of chair is displayed in engravings of the inside of rich Dutch homes by Abraham Bosse, a French artist, as well as in paintings by the Dutch artists Johannes Vermeer and Gerard Terborch. While this kind of chair might also be made in countries where Dutch styles of interior decoration and Dutch furniture won favour, it is not certain that the design actually began in The Netherlands. Generally, the legs of the chair are smooth, round in section, and of thin measurements; they are sometimes baluster-shaped (vase-shaped) or twisted. It is clearly a bourgeois piece of furniture and was produced in considerable quantities, as indicated from one of Abraham Bosse’s engravings, in which there is an entire row of these chairs lined up by a wall. The design asserts itself by virtue of its elegant proportions and delicate upholstery in gilt leather or fabric edged with fringes.

France and England: 17th and 18th centuries
The French Rococo chair in its most mature of forms—that was, to say, as developed in Paris around 1750—disseminated through most of Europe and was imitated or copied during the mid-20th century. The design owes its popularity to a combination of relaxation and charm. The seat conforms to the human body and permits a relaxed seated position. The back is bow-shaped, the legs curved. Usually the seat and back are upholstered, and there are small upholstered pads over the armrests. Smooth transitions are achieved between seat frame, legs, and back cover all the joints, which are strongly constructed on craftsmanlike methodology despite the absence of stretchers between the legs.

French Rococo chairs and imitations of them are made from wood of fairly thick density; but all members are deeply molded, all superfluous wood has been sanded away, and more expensive chairs may be further embellished with intricately delicate and decorative engravings. The wood might be varnished, stained, painted, or gilded. Silk damask or tapestry may be used for the upholstery on the seat, back, and armrests; crosshatched cane is occasionally used in place of upholstery.

English chairs of the 18th century were more variable in style than the French. The French preference for stylistic uniformity, which came from the most distinguished circles in Paris and Versailles through most of France and was popularised in many parts of the Continent, had no parallel in England. Prior to 1740, the most commonly used wood was walnut; thereafter, and for the rest of the century, it was mahogany. Walnut, though beautiful in hue, was soft and therefore less suited to wood carving than to rounded, curving forms. Outer surfaces, such as the back and seat frame, were usually veneered. During the walnut period, highly overstuffed armchairs, covered with leather or embroidered material, were also developed. The best upholstery of this period is precisely and firmly modelled and accentuated by braiding or tacks. When imports of mahogany became common, no specifically new chair designs appeared, but the character of the woodwork changed. Mahogany, having a firmer, closer grain, could be cut thinner, which meant that individual parts of the chair could be more slender in shape. Mahogany also lent itself better to carving than walnut. Carving was concentrated more on the arms and back than on the legs, which as a rule were straight and smooth with chamfered (bevelled) edges and molding. There was a wealth of variety in chairback designs, featuring elegant, pierced, vase-shaped splats or two upright posts connected by horizontal slats (ladderback).

Alongside the French Rococo chair and the best English chairs in walnut and mahogany, the stick-back chair was relatively unaffected by the stylistic changes of the day. Originally a medieval form, known, for example, from paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder and still found in mid-20th century in the churches and inns of southern Europe, the stick-back chair (in all of its variations) consists basically of a solid, saddle-shaped seat into which the legs, back staves, and possibly the armrests are directly mortised. This typically peasant form underwent a renewal and a process of refinement in England and America during the 18th century. Under the name Windsor chair (a term that seems to have been used for the first time in 1731) or Philadelphia chair, it became reknowned and was widely distributed throughout the world.

Late 18th to 20th century
During the Neoclassical period, no basic changes took place in chair forms, but legs became straight and dimensions lighter. Backs in the shape of classical vases replaced the fanciful outlines of the Rococo period. Around 1800, freely executed imitations of Greek and Roman chairs of the klismos type, with curved legs and backrest, appeared. French chairs of the Empire period, executed in dark mahogany and embellished with ornate bronze mounts, created a ponderous effect.

In cheaper styles of inferior workmanship, bourgeois chairs of the 19th century carried on the traditions of the 17th and 18th centuries. The only real innovations were the bentwood (wood that has been bent and shaped) chairs in beech that became popular all over the world and were still made in the 20th century. Around 1900 the continental Art Nouveau and Jugendstil styles (French and German styles characterized by organic foliate forms, sinuous lines, and non-geometric forms), and the Arts and Crafts movement in England (established by the English poet and decorator William Morris to reintroduce idealized standards of medieval craftsmanship), gave rise to original chair designs by Eugène Gaillard in France, Henry van de Velde in Belgium, Josef Hoffman in Austria, Antonio Gaudí in Spain, and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Scotland. These new furniture styles did not exercise wide, let alone decisive, influence. The Art Nouveau chairs designed by the French architect Hector Guimard, for example, are collector’s pieces, but his name is known to a broader public only because of his fanciful entrances to the Paris Métro.

Modern
After World War I, the Bauhaus school in Germany became a creative centre for revolutionary thinking, resulting, for example, in tubular steel chairs designed by the architects Marcel Breuer, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and others. During World War II, the aircraft industry accelerated the development of laminated wood and molded plastic furniture. The dominant chair forms of this period go back to designs by Alvar Aalto, Bruno Mathsson, and Charles and Ray Eames. Rapid technical developments, in conjunction with an ever-increasing interest in human-factors engineering, or ergonomics, suggest that completely new chair forms will probably be evolved in the future.

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